Between Buddhist Moonlight and Islamic Dawn: Religious Transformation as Palimpsest in Hunza
Part II: From the Waning Buddhist Moonlight to the Dawn of Islam: The Process of Religious Change in Hunza
Author's Note (Regarding Sources)
This study draws upon a diverse range of sources, including archaeological evidence, colonial-era records, local historical chronicles, oral traditions, and contemporary scholarship. For the reader's awareness, it is essential to acknowledge that historical records from the pre-modern era, particularly concerning the initial introduction of Ismailism, rely heavily upon oral traditions that were committed to writing centuries after the events they describe.
The absence of contemporary documentation from the fourteenth century means that scholarly interpretations vary concerning certain aspects of this narrative. Wherever possible, this study distinguishes between established historical facts and contested scholarly interpretations. The author acknowledges these limitations and presents this analysis as a synthesis of available evidence rather than a definitive account.
Abstract
This second installment of the series examines the religious transition from Buddhism to Islam in Hunza, tracing this process from the first century CE through the nineteenth century. Drawing upon archaeological evidence, historical chronicles, and international scholarship, this study reveals that religious transformation in Hunza was not a singular event but rather an extended and intricate process spanning multiple centuries.
The establishment of Buddhism along the Silk Road, the initial introduction of Ismailism, the founding of the Ayesho dynasty, and the nineteenth-century reestablishment of Ismailism through the missions of Syed Shah Ardabil and Syed Yaqut Shah represent successive layers of religious change. Beneath these layers, ancient shamanistic traditions persisted with remarkable resilience.
The analysis demonstrates that religious transformation in Hunza must be understood as a dialectical process, a dynamic interplay between change and continuity, innovation and tradition, external influence and indigenous resilience that continues to shape the region's religious and cultural identity to this day.
"Religious transformation in Hunza must be understood as a dialectical process, a dynamic interplay between change and continuity, innovation and tradition, external influence and indigenous resilience that continues to shape the region's religious and cultural identity to this day."
2.1 Introduction: The Transformation of the Religious Landscape
The religious history of Hunza is not a static tableau but rather a living, dynamic spiritual journey. Whereas the first part of this study examined ancient beliefs—nature worship, shamanism, and cosmological conceptions-this section moves forward through time. We shall explore those pivotal historical periods when the valleys of Hunza gradually came under Buddhist influence and then, several centuries later, welcomed a new spiritual dawn: Islam.
International scholars have characterized this transformation not as a singular event but as a protracted and intricate process unfolding over many centuries (Dani, 2001; Kreutzmann, 2020). This process encompassed political alliances, trade routes, religious missionary activities, and the synthesis of new beliefs with longstanding indigenous traditions.
This section argues that religious transformation in Hunza was not a linear progression from one faith to another. Rather, it resembled a palimpsest where each new religion, whether Buddhism, Ismaili Islam, or Twelver Shi'ism, added fresh layers of belief while preserving much of the earlier spiritual heritage (Sidky, 1996; Hunzai, 2004).
"Religious transformation in Hunza was not a linear progression from one faith to another. Rather, it resembled a palimpsest where each new religion added fresh layers of belief while preserving much of the earlier spiritual heritage."
2.2 The Establishment of Buddhism in Hunza: A Spiritual Revolution on the Silk Road
Although Buddhism was not the sole religion in Hunza's history, it was undoubtedly the most powerful and organized religious system prior to the advent of Islam. Archaeologists concur that the region came under Buddhist influence as early as the first century CE (Dani, 2001). Hunza's strategic position on the Silk Road-a thoroughfare facilitating the exchange of trade and religion between Central Asia, China, and the Indian subcontinent-played a pivotal role in this spiritual transformation (Neelis, n.d.).
Archaeological Evidence
The material evidence from this Buddhist period is remarkably rich. Among the most significant archaeological sites is the Sacred Rock of Hunza, locally known as Haldekish. Located on a hill east of the Hunza River near Ganish village, along the Karakoram Highway between Ganish and Attabad Lake, this site ranks among the oldest petroglyph locations discovered in Pakistan, with origins dating from the first century CE to the tenth century CE (Dani, 1985).
The inscriptions carved upon this rock appear in multiple scripts—Brahmi, Kharosthi, Tibetan, and Chinese. The images engraved include stupas, trishulas, and sacred animals. Jettmar (1980) emphasized the profound significance of these carvings for understanding cultural and religious movements along the Karakoram. Dani (1985) published a detailed study specifically examining the Sacred Rock and elucidating its historical importance.
Thousands of similar petroglyphs have been discovered along the banks of the Hunza and Gilgit rivers. Researchers have classified these carvings into three periods: pre-Buddhist, Buddhist, and post-Buddhist (Jettmar, 1980). The inscriptions at Haldekish provide clear evidence that travelers actively selected the Hunza route through the mountains.
Buddhist Influence on Local Culture
The people of Hunza remained largely Buddhist until the fifteenth century. Alongside Buddhism, Bon religion persisted as a complementary spiritual system. Bon shamanic elements did not compete with Buddhist cosmology but rather reinforced it (Dani, 2001; Kreutzmann, 2020).
Notably, Buddhist teachings became harmoniously interwoven with local spiritual traditions. The veneration of mountains, respect for ancestors, and understanding of cosmic balance absorbed Buddhist elements and assumed a distinctive local character. This synthesis of old and new created a unique form of Buddhism in the region that differed markedly from Buddhist practice elsewhere (Sidky, 1997; Neelis, n.d.).
Source: Google Images (2026). Archaeological interpretation follows Dani (1985) and Jettmar (1980).
This archaeological site features petroglyphs in Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts with stupa carvings, dated from the first to tenth century CE, providing evidence of Buddhism's establishment along the Silk Road (Dani, 1985; Jettmar, 1980). The weathered carvings reflect Hunza's layered religious transformations, with some images showing deliberate damage from later periods.
2.3 The First Islamic Dawn: Ismailism's Fourteenth-Century Introduction
The Foundation: Nasir Khusraw and the Ismaili Mission
The first formal introduction of Islam to Hunza came through the efforts of the Ismaili missionary movement. The celebrated Persian poet, philosopher, and Ismaili missionary Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088 CE) is traditionally honored as the pioneering figure in spreading Islam throughout this entire region. He was commissioned by the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir billah to guide the people of northern Afghanistan and Badakhshan toward the faith (Rashid, 2023).
Nasir Khusraw traveled through the mountainous territories, teaching the Ismaili interpretation of Islam. His work prepared the ground for later missionaries who would follow in his footsteps. The intellectual and spiritual legacy he established in Badakhshan and surrounding areas created conditions that would subsequently facilitate the spread of Ismailism into Hunza (Daftary, 1998).
Nāṣir-i Khusraw's presence in Badakhshan, particularly his exile in the remote province of Yumgān, is widely credited in scholarship and communal tradition as foundational for the Ismaili community of that region. However, historical sources lack concrete detail on his direct activity in the areas that would later become Gilgit-Baltistan, and scholarly consensus regarding his precise role remains a subject of ongoing research.
The Historical Introduction of Ismailism to Hunza
Scholarly consensus holds that Ismailism was first introduced to Hunza and surrounding regions in the early fourteenth century. This introduction is historically associated with missionary activity originating from Badakhshan, where Ismaili communities had already been established through the earlier efforts of Nasir Khusraw and his successors (Rashid, 2020; Daftary, 1998).
The figure most directly associated with the spread of Ismailism during this early period is Taj Mughal (also known as Tajuddin Mughal), a ruler or military commander from Badakhshan. According to multiple historical sources, including Tarikh-e-Chitral, Tarikh-e-Jammu, and local traditions from Gilgit and Hunza, Taj Mughal was an ardent Ismaili and a promoter of the faith. He is recorded as having invaded the region around 1320 CE, conquering areas including Chitral, Yasin, Punial, and Gilgit, and in the process, spreading Ismailism. It was during this campaign that the Ismaili faith was introduced to Nagar and Hunza.
A physical testament to his presence is the Taj Mughal Minar, a historical tower located in Jutial, Gilgit, which is approximately 700 years old and is said to have been built by him.
The Ismaili Mission in Hunza: An Overview
The Ismaili mission in Hunza is generally understood to have occurred through multiple phases:
First Introduction – Early 14th Century
· Key Characteristics: Missionary activity from Badakhshan, notably associated with Taj Mughal's military campaign
· Outcome: Ismailism gradually declined due to lack of organizational structure
Second Phase – c. 1823 CE
· Key Characteristics: Mir Salim Khan II embraces Ismailism through Syed Shah Ardabil (Shah Dawil); practiced taqiya; died in Gulmit
· Outcome: Private conversion; limited public impact during his lifetime; funeral rites with Chiragh Roshan
Consolidation – 1838 CE
· Key Characteristics: Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan converts through Syed Yaqut Shah with Aga Khan I's approval
· Outcome: Mass conversion; khalifa system established; Ismailism firmly reestablished
This multi-phase model is widely accepted among researchers, although details of the first phase are less certain due to the absence of contemporary written documentation (Rashid, 2020; Hunzai, 2004; Najib, 2018).
The Historical Figure Associated with the First Phase
The early introduction of Ismailism to Hunza is historically attributed to a figure from Badakhshan whose name and identity have been preserved in local traditions and later historical chronicles. Multiple independent sources—including local historical works, colonial-era records, and oral traditions—concur on the existence of an Ismaili missionary or ruler from Badakhshan who had connections to the Gilgit-Baltistan region in the early fourteenth century (Rashid, 2020; Shah Rais Khan, n.d.; Ghufran, 1962).
According to these traditions, Taj Mughal wielded military and political influence in the region, including the establishment of new rulers in certain areas (such as the Raisa dynasty in Chitral) and the introduction of Ismailism in Gilgit, Hunza, and Nagar (Rashid, 2020; Hunzai, 2004). The conversion of local rulers through this missionary activity followed a pattern that would characterize religious transformation in the region for centuries-the ruler's adoption of a new faith often precipitated the conversion of their subjects (Hunzai, 2004).
However, as researchers have noted, the precise nature and extent of this early missionary activity remain uncertain. The missionary left behind "no proper organization of missionaries and teachers who could continue the mission" (Najib, 2018), which explains why Ismailism "gradually disappeared from these areas" following its initial introduction (Najib, 2018).
Historical Problems and Uncertainties
Several factors complicate the historical reconstruction of this period:
a. Absence of Written Records
As Azizullah Najib explicitly notes, "no written traces remain" from this phase (Najib, 2018). The entire narrative of the early introduction of Ismailism relies upon:
· Oral traditions transmitted across generations
· Later historical works (sixteenth–twentieth centuries) that codified these oral traditions
· The absence of contemporary documentation from the fourteenth century.
This dependence on oral tradition renders it difficult to distinguish historical fact from legendary embellishment (Rashid, 2020).
b. Conflicting Timelines
Different sources present contradictory dates, with discrepancies spanning several decades or more. This historical confusion suggests that historical memory may have compressed or distorted over time (Hunzai, 2004).
c. The "Conquest" versus "Mission" Debate
While some sources describe the introduction of Ismailism as a military conquest, others present a more nuanced picture of political invitation and negotiation (Rashid, 2020). This suggests that the missionary's role may have been more diplomatic and opportunistic than purely military.
d. Legendary Elements
Local traditions surrounding the introduction of Ismailism contain elements that are historically questionable, including dramatic conversions of rulers and rapid spread of the faith across vast mountainous territories (Hunzai, 2004). These elements bear the hallmarks of hagiographical narratives that glorify religious founders (Daftary, 1998).
e. Scholarly Debates on Identity and Authenticity
Some scholars, such as Professor Ahmad Hasan Dani, have questioned certain aspects of the Taj Mughal narrative, suggesting that some figures in local traditions may have been conflated with earlier Buddhist rulers or that the event has been subject to considerable historical embellishment. Other authors, including Hashmatullah Khan, Mirza Ghufran, and Shah Rais Khan, firmly identify him as an Ismaili ruler and da'i. The existence of the Taj Mughal Minar provides material evidence supporting the historical presence of a figure of this name in the region. This divergence in scholarly opinion underscores the complexity of reconstructing a history where literary sources were often composed centuries after the purported events.
Scholarly Consensus
The most balanced scholarly position, represented by Rashid (2020), Najib (2018), and Daftary (1998) at the broader level, holds that:
· Ismailism was introduced to Hunza in the early fourteenth century
· Missionary activity originated from Badakhshan
· A historical figure from Badakhshan, identified by many as Taj Mughal, played a key role in this introduction
· However, Ismailism did not survive in an organized form following this initial phase
· Ismailism was reestablished much later, in the nineteenth century, through the efforts of subsequent missionaries
2.4 The Ayesho Dynasty: Ismailism's Fifteenth-Century Consolidation
Following the early introduction of Ismailism and its gradual decline, the second and more enduring consolidation of Ismailism occurred with the establishment of the Ayesho dynasty in the fifteenth century. Tradition holds that Shah Khan-known as Ayesho I-was a prince of Shughnan (present-day Tajikistan) who was invited to the valley by the elders of Hunza (Beg, 1987; Leitner, 1889).
The Story of Ayesho I
Major J. Biddulph, a British colonial officer, recorded this narrative. He wrote that a prince of Shughnan married a princess of Hunza. The prince received the name "Ayesho," which in the local language means "sent from heaven." From this name, the ruling dynasty of Hunza derives its appellation (as cited in Beg, 1987; Leitner, 1889). Dr. G. W. Leitner (1889) confirmed this genealogical tradition in his foundational work, The Hunza and Nagar Handbook.
The Ismaili Connection
The rulers of Shughnan were already Ismaili—their ancestors had accepted Islam through the efforts of Nasir Khusraw. Consequently, Shah Khan (Ayesho I) was himself an Ismaili. He was accompanied by Wakhi Ismailis who settled in Gojal, a region of Hunza (Hunzai, 2004).
Thus, Ismailism once again became the official religion of Hunza. This established a close relationship between political power and religious authority that would persist for centuries (Hunzai, 2004; Beg, 1987).
The Scholarly Contributions of Vladimir Ivanow
It is essential to acknowledge the foundational research of Vladimir Ivanow (1886–1970), a pioneering Russian scholar and founder of modern Ismaili studies. Ivanow systematically discovered, edited, and published numerous previously unknown Ismaili manuscripts. He discovered these manuscripts in India, the Middle East, and Central Asia. His access to these sources was made possible through his formal appointment in 1931 by Aga Khan III to work on Ismaili literature (Ivanow, n.d.).
Ivanow's work provided the scholarly infrastructure for understanding Ismaili traditions globally. His memoirs, Fifty Years in the East, and his numerous studies on Ismaili manuscripts and history, published through the institutions he established, constitute the foundation of modern Ismaili studies (Ivanow, n.d.; Daftary, 1998).
2.5 An Interlude: The Twelver Shi'i Presence at Altit Fort
Even after the establishment of the Ayesho dynasty, Hunza's religious landscape was not monolithic. Evidence from the mid-sixteenth century indicates a period of Twelver Shi'i influence in the region. The inscription at Altit Fort, dated 1548 CE, provides clear historical evidence for the establishment of Twelver Shi'i influence in this region (Dani, 1985, 2001).
This inscription, carved into the stone of the fort, testifies to the presence of Twelver Shi'i authorities in the region during this period. The existence of such an inscription suggests that Twelver Shi'ism wielded sufficient influence to leave lasting material evidence of its presence (Dani, 2001).
The Forts of Altit and Baltit
The forts of Altit and Baltit, which date from the Twelver period, stand as symbols of religious transformation. Baltit Fort is approximately 800 years old and has been continuously inhabited and modified over the centuries (Dani, 2001).
These forts serve not only as symbols of political power but also of religious patronage. Their construction and maintenance required resources that reflected the priorities of the ruling elite. The forts also functioned as symbols of religious authority, demonstrating the connection between political and religious power (Kreutzmann, 2020).
The Temporary Nature of Twelver Influence
Despite evidence of Twelver Shi'i influence in the mid-sixteenth century, this tradition did not become permanently established in Hunza. Today, the overwhelming majority of Hunza's population adheres to Ismailism, while other Islamic traditions-including Twelver Shi'ism and Sunni Islam-are represented by only a small number of families across the valley (Hunzai, 2004; Rashid, 2020).
This demographic reality reflects the outcome of centuries of religious evolution, in which Ismailism emerged as the dominant tradition while other interpretations of Islam remained minority expressions within the broader religious landscape. The Twelver period, therefore, appears as a relatively brief interlude in Hunza's religious history-a layer that was subsequently overlaid by the reestablishment and consolidation of Ismailism (Hunzai, 2004).
2.6 Reestablishment: The Nineteenth-Century Ismaili Revival
The Role of Syed Shah Ardabil and Mir Salim Khan II
According to Azizullah Najib's authoritative work Chitral aur Gilgit Baltistan ke Ismaili, the reestablishment of Ismailism in Hunza began with Mir Salim Khan II, who embraced the faith at the hands of Syed Shah Ardabil (known locally as Shah Dawil), an Ismaili missionary from Badakhshan (Najib, 2018; Ismaili.net, n.d.).
Mir Salim Khan II's conversion, however, was not immediately made public. Due to political considerations and the sensitive religious dynamics of the region, he practiced taqiya (religious dissimulation)—concealing his new faith while outwardly maintaining the appearance of his previous religious affiliation. He remained in this state of concealment until his death in 1823 CE (1240 AH) (Beg, 1987; Najib, 2018).
The practice of taqiya in this context reflects the complex political and religious environment of early nineteenth-century Hunza, where public declaration of a new faith could have destabilized the ruler's position and threatened the delicate balance of power in the valley (Najib, 2018).
The Death of Mir Salim Khan in Gulmit and the Chiragh Roshan
Mir Salim Khan II died in Gulmit, a historic village in the Gojal region of Upper Hunza. According to Qudratullah Beg's Tarikh-e-Ahd-e-Atiq Riyasat-e-Hunza, Syed Shah Ardabil had prophesied that an Ismaili missionary would arrive in Hunza at the moment of the Mir's death to conduct his funeral rites according to Ismaili traditions (Beg, 1987).
This prophecy was remarkably fulfilled when Syed Shah Hussain (son of Syed Shah Ardabil) arrived in Gulmit precisely at the time of Mir Salim Khan's death. Syed Shah Hussain performed his burial according to Ismaili traditions, which included introducing the "Chiragh Roshan" (lighting of the lamp)-a ritual that holds profound spiritual significance in Ismaili tradition, symbolizing the illumination of the soul and its journey toward divine light (Beg, 1987; Ismaili.net, n.d.; Najib, 2018).
"In the flickering flame of the Chiragh Roshan, the light of faith continues to illuminate the path from Gulmit to the present day."
The Chiragh Roshan ritual, also known as Chiragh-e-Roshan or the "ceremony of light," involves the lighting of a lamp during funeral proceedings and is accompanied by specific prayers. In the Ismaili tradition of the region, this ritual represents:
· Spiritual illumination - The light of the lamp symbolizes divine guidance and the soul's journey toward spiritual enlightenment
· Continuity of faith - The ritual serves as a public affirmation of the deceased's faith and connection to the Ismaili tradition
· Community solidarity —-The gathering of the community around the lighted lamp reinforces communal bonds and shared religious identity
The introduction of this ritual in Gulmit for Mir Salim Khan's funeral marked a significant moment in the reestablishment of Ismaili practice in Hunza. It served as a public, albeit posthumous, declaration of the Mir's faith and set the stage for the subsequent consolidation of Ismailism under his successor (Najib, 2018).
The choice of Gulmit as the location of Mir Salim Khan's death and burial is significant. Gulmit, located in Gojal, had already been a center of Wakhi Ismaili settlement following the arrival of Ayesho I. The presence of this established Ismaili community likely facilitated the arrival of Syed Shah Hussain and the performance of the Chiragh Roshan ritual (Hunzai, 2004).
The Mission of Syed Yaqut Shah and Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan
Following Mir Salim Khan's death, his son Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan succeeded to the throne. Initial efforts to invite Syed Hussain Ardabil to Hunza as a resident missionary were unsuccessful due to political disputes-particularly the objection of Akhund Turab Ali, who insisted that the ruler should be the first to publicly embrace the faith (Ismaili.net, n.d.; Najib, 2018). This political impasse delayed the public establishment of Ismailism in Hunza and created an environment of religious tension that would only be resolved with the arrival of a more authoritative missionary figure. The objection raised by Akhund Turab Ali reflected the complex power dynamics of the region, where religious authority and political legitimacy were deeply intertwined, and any public conversion had to be carefully orchestrated to maintain stability.
The decisive moment came with the arrival of Syed Yaqut Shah (also spelled Syed Yakut Shah) in 1838 CE (1254 AH). Syed Yaqut Shah, a missionary from Badakhshan and son of Syed Shah Abdur Rahim, had traveled to Kirman to seek the formal approval of Aga Khan I for a proselytizing mission in Gilgit and Hunza (Ismaili.net, n.d.; Najib, 2018; Rashid, 2020).
Armed with this authorization from the highest authority in Ismailism—which lent legitimacy to the mission and connected Hunza to the broader Ismaili tradition—Syed Yaqut Shah arrived in Hunza. This time, Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan accepted Ismailism publicly, and his courtiers and subjects followed him in pledging allegiance (Beg, 1987; Hunzai, 2004).
The political logic of this pattern is clear: it established a connection between political power and religious authority, with each reinforcing the other. The ruler's conversion legitimized the new religion while simultaneously reinforcing his authority (Hunzai, 2004).
Institutional Structure
Syed Yaqut Shah could remain in Hunza for only twenty-five days, but he appointed a khalifa (religious representative) in every village, creating a decentralized structure of religious leadership (Beg, 1987; Hunzai, 2004).
These khalifas continued to teach the Ismaili faith to new Murids after the missionary's departure. This institutional innovation proved crucial for the long-term sustainability of the Ismaili tradition in Hunza, ensuring the continuity of religious education despite the physical absence of the missionary (Hunzai, 2004).
Chronological Overview
First Introduction - Early 14th Century
· Key Figures: Taj Mughal (Badakhshan)
· Key Locations: Gilgit, Hunza, Nagar
· Outcome: Ismailism introduced but later declined due to lack of organizational structure
Second Introduction (Private) - c. 1823 CE
· Key Figures: Mir Salim Khan II and Syed Shah Ardabil (Shah Dawil)
· Key Locations: Gulmit (Gojal)
· Outcome: Mir Salim Khan embraced Ismailism; practiced taqiya; died in Gulmit; funeral rites with Chiragh Roshan performed by Syed Shah Hussain
Consolidation (Public) - 1838 CE
· Key Figures: Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan and Syed Yaqut Shah (approved by Aga Khan I)
· Key Locations: Baltit Fort, Hunza Valley
· Outcome: Mass conversion; khalifa system established; Ismailism firmly reestablished
Comparison with the First Phase
The differences between the early fourteenth-century introduction and the nineteenth-century reestablishment are instructive:
Institutional Support
· First Phase (14th Century): None
· Second Phase (19th Century): Approval and backing of Aga Khan I
Organizational Structure
· First Phase (14th Century): Inadequate
· Second Phase (19th Century): Khalifa system established
Duration of Missionary Presence
· First Phase (14th Century): Limited
· Second Phase (19th Century): Twenty-five days (brief but effective)
Long-term Sustainability
· First Phase (14th Century): Failed
· Second Phase (19th Century): Successful
Public Declaration
· First Phase (14th Century): Uncertain
· Second Phase (19th Century): Public conversion of ruler and subjects
Ritual Introduction
· First Phase (14th Century): Limited
· Second Phase (19th Century): Chiragh Roshan established
This comparison indicates that institutional support and organizational structure were crucial for the long-term sustainability of Ismailism in Hunza (Hunzai, 2004; Daftary, 1998). The nineteenth-century reestablishment succeeded precisely because it addressed the deficiencies of the earlier introduction-providing both the authoritative backing of the Ismaili Imamate and a sustainable institutional framework for religious education and practice.
2.7 The Persistence of Shamanistic Traditions
Despite the formal establishment of Ismailism as the dominant religious tradition, the ancient shamanistic practices of Hunza did not disappear. Instead, they persisted alongside and within the new Islamic framework, demonstrating the remarkable resilience of indigenous spiritual traditions.
The Resilience of the Bitan System
Beneath the layers of organized religion-Buddhism, Ismailism, and Twelver Shi'ism-the ancient shamanistic tradition persisted as a strong undercurrent in Hunza's spiritual life. The bitan system demonstrated remarkable resilience, continuing alongside and within Islamic practice (Sidky, 1996).
"The bitan system was 'fully flourishing' even after the establishment of Ismailism. Young men continued to be called to become shamans. References to the belief in fairies (pari) remained common in daily life."
The bitan system was "fully flourishing" even after the establishment of Ismailism. Young men continued to be called to become shamans. References to the belief in fairies (pari) remained common in daily life (Sidky, 1996). This pattern is common throughout the Himalayan region: organized religions overlay older beliefs but do not entirely erase them (Kreutzmann, 2020).
The persistence of shamanistic rituals suggests that transformation, however extensive, did not represent a complete break with the past. Instead, religious transformation built upon existing foundations, reconciling pre-existing spiritual categories with new beliefs (Sidky, 1996).
Key Figures in Hunza's Religious Transformation
Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088 CE)
· Role: Persian poet-philosopher; foundational Ismaili missionary in Central Asia.
Taj Mughal (fl. c. 1320 CE)
· Role: Military commander from Badakhshan; associated with first Ismaili introduction
Shah Khan (Ayesho I) (15th century CE)
· Role: Prince of Shughnan; founder of Hunza's Ayesho dynasty
Syed Shah Ardabil (c. 1823 CE)
· Role: Ismaili missionary; converted Mir Salim Khan II privately
Syed Shah Hussain (1823 CE)
· Role: Son of Ardabil; performed Chiragh Roshan at Mir Salim Khan's funeral in Gulmit
Syed Yaqut Shah (1838 CE)
· Role: Missionary approved by Aga Khan I; established khalifa system in Hunza
International Research Contributions
The scholarly understanding of Hunza's spiritual history has been greatly advanced by a substantial body of international research. Key scholars and their contributions include:
Hermann Kreutzmann, Professor at Freie Universität Berlin, has authored several seminal works on the region, including Hunza Matters: Bordering and Ordering Between Ancient and New Silk Roads (2020). His research encompasses irrigation systems, political development, and the region's strategic importance along the Silk Road.
M. H. Sidky, affiliated with Wolfson College, Oxford, has provided in-depth ethnographic and historical research on Hunza's shamanistic traditions. His work, Shamans and Mountain Spirits in Hunza, offers nuanced analysis of the complex bitan (shaman) system. His research on irrigation and state formation (Sidky, 1997) documents the construction of irrigation systems during the eighteenth century.
Wolfgang Holzwarth has studied the development of Ismaili communities in northern Pakistan as religious minorities, contextualizing their growth within external relations and political developments.
Ahmad Hasan Dani (2001), Pakistan's preeminent historian, provided essential research on the history of the northern areas and the Sacred Rock of Hunza. His work established a chronological and interpretive foundation for all subsequent studies.
Jason Neelis has studied the spread of Buddhism and long-distance trade through northern Pakistan, utilizing Kharosthi and Brahmi inscriptions as primary sources.
Faqir Muhammad Hunzai (2004), affiliated with the Institute of Ismaili Studies in London, has published a seminal study on the mountain Ismailis of Hunza, presenting Islam as a "living branch" of spiritual expression.
Azizullah Najib (2018) has provided crucial documentation of the Ismaili tradition in Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, including the pivotal roles of Syed Shah Ardabil and Syed Yaqut Shah in the reestablishment of Ismailism in Hunza.
Vladimir Ivanow is indispensable. His memoirs, Fifty Years in the East, and his numerous studies on Ismaili manuscripts and history, published through the institutions he established, form the foundation of modern Ismaili studies (Ivanow, n.d.; Daftary, 1998).
Farhad Daftary (1998), as Director of the Institute of Ismaili Studies, has provided comprehensive scholarly frameworks for understanding the Ismaili tradition globally. His A Short History of the Ismailis situates the local histories of Gilgit-Baltistan within the broader narrative of Ismaili history, providing essential context for understanding the doctrinal and organizational aspects of missionary activity in the region.
2.8 Socio-Cultural Impacts of Religious Transformation
The process of religious transformation in Hunza was not confined to abstract theology. It effected fundamental changes throughout society, reshaping political structures, cultural practices, and social relationships in ways that continue to influence the region today.
Political Structure
Just as the shamanic traditions persisted beneath the surface of organized religion, so too did the political structures of Hunza adapt to religious change while maintaining continuity with the past. Religious transformation always began with the ruling dynasty. When the Mir converted, the people followed. This created a strong bond between political power and religious authority. The two became inseparable (Hunzai, 2004; Beg, 1987).
The pattern established in the nineteenth-century reestablishment of Ismailism—with Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan's public conversion followed by his courtiers and subjects-reinforced this centuries-old dynamic. The ruler's adoption of the new faith legitimized it politically while simultaneously strengthening his own authority through divine sanction (Hunzai, 2004).
Cultural Synthesis
The political transformation brought about by religious change was accompanied by a cultural synthesis that integrated elements of older traditions into the new Islamic framework. Elements of Buddhism and pre-Islamic traditions were integrated into the new Islamic framework. For example, the veneration of purity, ecological balance, ethics of water usage, sustainable management of resources, and protection of nature-all fundamental values of the shamanic worldview-continued as cultural traditions. They were simply reinterpreted within an Islamic understanding (Sidky, 1996; Kreutzmann, 2020).
The Role of the Shaman (Bitan)
This cultural synthesis was most evident in the continued importance of the shaman, whose role adapted to the new religious context while maintaining its essential spiritual functions. The Hunza shaman, known in the Burushaski language as bitan, continued to perform an essential spiritual role in society. These spiritual practitioners:
· Inhaled the smoke of burning juniper leaves
· Danced to special music
· Drank the blood from the head of a sacrificed goat
· Communicated with transcendent beings
Their activities included healing the sick, predicting the future, and protecting people from evil spirits (Sidky, 1996).
The Resilience of Shamanic Tradition
The bitan tradition demonstrated remarkable resilience. It continued alongside and within Islamic practice. Rulers (thums) were required to perform ancient rituals and maintain close relationships with the spirit world. This reveals how deeply embedded the old beliefs were in the culture (Sidky, 1996).
2.9 Archaeology and Material Culture: Witnesses to Transformation
The resilience of shamanic traditions is not only evident in living practices but also in the physical remains that have survived from earlier periods. The physical remains found in Hunza provide powerful evidence of religious transformation, offering tangible links to the region's complex spiritual history.
The Sacred Rock of Hunza (Haldekish)
Among the most significant archaeological sites is the Sacred Rock of Hunza, locally known as Haldekish. This site displays Buddhist petroglyphs. Some were deliberately damaged or destroyed after the adoption of Islam. The destruction and preservation of these images reflect the struggle over religious identity (Dani, 1985; Jettmar, 1980).
The Forts of Altit and Baltit
The forts of Altit and Baltit, which date from the Twelver period, stand as symbols of religious transformation. These magnificent structures are approximately 800 years old and have been continuously inhabited and modified over the centuries (Dani, 2001).
Inscriptions
The 1548 CE inscription at Altit Fort provides clear historical evidence for the establishment of Twelver influence in the region (Dani, 1985).
The Chiragh Roshan Tradition in Gulmit
The introduction of the Chiragh Roshan ritual in Gulmit following Mir Salim Khan's death represents a significant moment in the material and ritual culture of Hunza's religious transformation. This ritual, which continues to be practiced by Ismaili communities in the region, serves as a tangible link to the events of 1823 CE and the reestablishment of Ismaili practice (Ismaili.net, n.d.; Najib, 2018).
2.10 The Shamanic Foundation: Resilience and Continuity
The archaeological evidence of religious change points to a deeper reality: beneath the successive layers of organized religion-Buddhism, Ismailism, and Twelver Shi'ism-the ancient shamanic tradition persisted as a strong undercurrent in Hunza's spiritual life. This foundation, rooted in the region's earliest spiritual practices, provided a framework that proved remarkably adaptable to changing religious circumstances. Even as new faiths were introduced and established, the shamanic worldview continued to inform the daily lives and spiritual understanding of Hunza's people.
The Survival of Ancient Beliefs
The resilience of this shamanic foundation is evident in the survival of ancient beliefs into the modern era. The bitan system was "fully flourishing" even in the late twentieth century. Young men continued to be called to become shamans. References to the belief in fairies (pari) remained common in daily life (Sidky, 1996). This pattern is common throughout the Himalayan region. Organized religions overlay older beliefs but do not entirely erase them (Kreutzmann, 2020).
The persistence of these ancient practices into the modern era demonstrates that religious transformation in Hunza was never a complete replacement of one belief system by another. Rather, it was a process of accumulation and adaptation, where new traditions were added to existing spiritual foundations without entirely displacing them.
The Reinterpretation of Spirits
This survival of ancient beliefs required a reinterpretation of traditional spirits within the new Islamic framework. The ancient spirits of mountains, glaciers, and alpine forests were known as baraye thung. These spirits did not disappear with the advent of new beliefs. Instead, they were reinterpreted within an Islamic framework. Sometimes they were called jinn (spirits in Islamic tradition). Sometimes they were viewed as local saints or protectors (Sidky, 1996).
This reinterpretation reflects a pattern common to religious transformations worldwide: the old gods and spirits do not vanish but are incorporated into new theological frameworks, often retaining their power and significance while acquiring new names and attributes. In Hunza, the mountain spirits continued to be revered, but now within the vocabulary and conceptual framework of Islam.
Ecological Wisdom
The reinterpretation of spirits within an Islamic framework did not diminish the ecological wisdom embedded in the traditional cosmology. This cosmology, which viewed earthly and transcendent worlds as sharing a single habitat, created a worldview in which human actions had spiritual consequences. The shamanic emphasis on purity and harmony, ethical use of water, sustainable use of resources, and environmental cleanliness incorporated valuable ecological wisdom that remains relevant today (Sidky, 1996). This ensured that conversion to Islam did not completely eradicate indigenous beliefs. Rather, it led to their transformation and integration into a new religious synthesis (Kreutzmann, 2020).
The ecological dimension of Hunza's shamanic heritage is particularly significant in the context of contemporary environmental challenges. The reverence for mountains, glaciers, and water sources that characterized pre-Islamic spirituality has persisted in Islamic practice, creating a distinctive religious-environmental ethic that continues to shape the region's relationship with its natural environment.
2.11 Conclusion: Continuity in Change
The ecological wisdom embedded in Hunza's shamanic heritage points to a broader pattern: Hunza's religious history emerges as a process of both transformation and continuity. This dialectical interplay between change and tradition has shaped the region's spiritual identity in ways that continue to evolve in the present day. The story of Hunza's religious transformation is not one of simple replacement but of accumulation, adaptation, and synthesis.
A Dialectical Process
This dialectical process is evident in each phase of Hunza's religious history. Buddhism provided an organized framework for pre-Islamic spiritual traditions. Ismailism, introduced in the fourteenth century and reestablished in the nineteenth, absorbed certain Buddhist elements. The brief Twelver period also contributed to this evolving spiritual journey. The ancient shamanic tradition, centered on the bitan and pari spirits, provided a framework that proved remarkably adaptable (Sidky, 1996; Hunzai, 2004; Kreutzmann, 2020).
"In the mountains of Hunza, the ancient spirits never truly departed. They merely learned to speak new languages."
As scholars such as Ivanow (n.d.), Daftary (1998), and Najib (2018) have demonstrated, the Ismaili tradition in this region is not a break with the past but a continuation of a long spiritual journey. Hunza's sacred landscape-its mountains, glaciers, and rivers-remains filled with spirits. The rituals honoring them are still performed.
The religious history of Hunza thus exemplifies a pattern of spiritual evolution that is neither linear nor revolutionary but cumulative and adaptive. Each new faith added layers of belief and practice while preserving much of the spiritual heritage that preceded it.
A Living Legacy
This dialectical process is not merely a historical phenomenon but continues to shape Hunza's spiritual life today. The bitan still inhale juniper smoke, dance to special music, and communicate with transcendent beings. The Ai Bak (Moon Dance), a traditional ritual dance rooted in Hunza's ancient shamanistic heritage, is still venerated and performed during community festivals and celebrations. The Chiragh Roshan continues to be lit in Ismaili funeral ceremonies, connecting the present community to the pivotal events of 1823 CE in Gulmit. This pattern of religious synthesis-adding new beliefs without entirely erasing old ones-has been characteristic of Hunza's spiritual history (Sidky, 1996; Hunzai, 2004).
These living traditions demonstrate that Hunza's religious transformation is not a completed historical process but an ongoing journey. The ancient spirits, the shamanic practices, the Buddhist influences, and the Islamic traditions coexist in a complex synthesis that continues to evolve.
The Current Situation
The living legacy of Hunza's spiritual traditions continues to shape the region's religious landscape. Today, Ismaili Muslims constitute the overwhelming majority of Hunza's population, representing the latest chapter in this millennia-long spiritual journey (Hunzai, 2004; Rashid, 2020). The religious landscape also includes small communities of other Islamic traditions, reflecting the valley's historical openness to diverse religious influences while maintaining Ismaili identity as its predominant character.
The same themes continue:
· Veneration of mountains
· Respect for ancestors
· Care for the environment
· Community unity
These values, which have persisted through centuries of religious change, reflect the deep continuity of Hunza's spiritual culture. They transcend the particularities of any single religious tradition and speak to a shared cultural heritage that has endured through Buddhism, Ismailism, and the other faiths that have shaped the region.
The Continuing Journey
As Hunza navigates the pressures of modernity, economic development, and cultural change, its religious traditions continue to evolve. This spiritual journey continues. The third part of this study will examine Hunza's contemporary religious identity, the challenges of globalization, and future prospects. The same dialectical process that characterized the transition from Buddhism to Islam now shapes the encounter between tradition and modernity. The resilience demonstrated by the shamanic tradition suggests that Hunza's spiritual culture will continue to adapt while maintaining its distinctive character.
"In the flickering flame of the Chiragh Roshan, the light of faith continues to illuminate the path from Gulmit to the present day."
References
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Beg, Q. (1962). Tarikh-e-Ahd-e-Atiq Hunza [History of Ancient Hunza]. Rawalpindi. (Cited in Rashid, 2020)
Beg, Q. A. (1987). Tarikh-e-Ahd-e-Atiq Riyasat-e-Hunza [History of the Ancient State of Hunza] (S. Beg, Ed.). S.T. Printers. (Original work published 1980)
Beg, S. A. (2018). Qadeem Daur Riyasat-e-Hunza [Ancient Era State of Hunza]. North Books.
Daftary, F. (1998). A short history of the Ismailis: Traditions of a Muslim community. Edinburgh University Press.
Dani, A. H. (1985). The Sacred Rock of Hunza. Journal of Central Asia, 8(2).
Dani, A. H. (2001). History of the northern areas of Pakistan (2nd ed.). Sang-e-Meel Publications.
Frembgen, J. W., & Beg, E. (2023). Animal motifs on a wooden box from Hunza (Karakoram). In Roots of Peristan: The pre-Islamic cultures of the Hindu Kush/Karakoram (Serie Orientale Roma N.S. 37). ISMEO.
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Hashimullah Khan. (n.d.). Tarikh-e-Jammu [History of Jammu]. (Cited in Rashid, 2020)
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Hunzai, A. J. (2000). Hunza ke Qadeem Tehwar aur Rasoom [Ancient festivals and rituals of Hunza]. Noor Sons.
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Hunzai, F. M. (2004). A living branch of Islam: Ismailis of the mountains of Hunza. Oriente Moderno, 84(1).
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Isar Hunzvi, F. A. (2002). Riyasat-e-Hunza: Tarikh wa Saqafat ke Aaine Mein [The State of Hunza: In the mirror of history and culture]. Hani Sara Publishing Network.
Ismaili.net. (n.d.). Mission in Gilgit and Hunza. Retrieved from https://www.ismaili.net/histoire/history08/history804.html
Ivanow, V. (n.d.). Fifty years in the East. (Published posthumously in collaboration with the Institute of Ismaili Studies).
Jettmar, K. (1980). Rock carvings and inscriptions in the northern areas of Pakistan.
Kreutzmann, H. (2020). Hunza matters: Bordering and ordering between ancient and new Silk Roads. Harrassowitz Verlag.
Kreutzmann, H. (Ed.). (n.d.). Karakoram in transition: Culture, development, and ecology in the Hunza Valley.
Leitner, G. W. (1889). The Hunza and Nagar handbook. (Reprinted 1985, Karachi).
Najib, A. A. (2018). Chitral aur Gilgit Baltistan ke Ismaili [Ismailis of Chitral and Gilgit Baltistan]. Karachi: Dī Pres.
Neelis, J. E. (n.d.). Long-distance trade and the transmission of Buddhism through northern Pakistan.
Rashid, N. A. (2020). Islam in Gilgit, Nagar and Hunza. Journal of Pakistan Study Centre, University of Peshawar.
Rashid, N. A. (2023). Ismaili da'wah in Central Asia. Idarah-e-Saqafat-e-Islamia.
Shah Rais Khan. (n.d.). Tarikh-e-Gilgit [History of Gilgit]. (Cited in Rashid, 2020)
Sidky, M. H. (1996). Shamanism in the Hunza Valley: Religious beliefs and practices in the Karakoram. Anthropos, 91(1/3), 89-102.
Sidky, M. H. (1997). Irrigation and the rise of the state in Hunza. Modern Asian Studies, 31(3), 621-656.
Sidky, M. H. (n.d.). Shamans and mountain spirits in Hunza.
Tucker, J. (2015). The ancient Silk Road and the Karakoram Highway: A journey through history and culture. I.B. Tauris.
Further Reading
Daftary, F. (1998). A short history of the Ismailis: Traditions of a Muslim community. Edinburgh University Press.
Note: Provides essential overview of Ismaili tradition globally.
Dani, A. H. (2001). History of the northern areas of Pakistan (2nd ed.). Sang-e-Meel Publications.
Note: Foundational regional history covering the northern areas including Hunza.
Sidky, M. H. (1996). Shamanism in the Hunza Valley: Religious beliefs and practices in the Karakoram. Anthropos, 91(1/3), 89-102.
Note: Detailed ethnographic study of shamanistic traditions in Hunza.
Kreutzmann, H. (2020). Hunza matters: Bordering and ordering between ancient and new Silk Roads. Harrassowitz Verlag.
Note: Comprehensive contemporary analysis of Hunza's political and cultural development.
Ivanow, V. (n.d.). Fifty years in the East. (Published posthumously in collaboration with the Institute of Ismaili Studies).
Note: Memoirs of the pioneer of modern Ismaili studies.
Indeed the spiritual journey in the mountain is a divine blessing
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